Thursday, 6 May 2021
Tuesday, 4 May 2021
The home and the world themes
Important themes
Tradition vs modernism
As the title suggests, a major theme is the relationship of the home with the outside world. Nikhil enjoys the modern, western goods and clothing and lavishes Bimala with them. However, Bimala, in the Hindu tradition, never goes outside of the house complex. Her world is a clash of western and traditional Indian life. She enjoys the modern things that Nikhil brings to her, but when Sandip comes and speaks of nationalism with such fire, she sees these things as a threat to her way of life. Bimala's struggle is with identity. She is part of the country, but only knows the home and her home is a mix of cultures. She is torn between supporting the ideal of a country that she knows she should love, or working toward ensuring that her home, her whole world, is free from strife and supporting her husband like a traditional Indian woman should. Bimala is forced to try to understand how her traditional life can mix with a modern world and not be undermined. This theme ties in with the nationalism theme because it is another way that Tagore is warning against the possibility that nationalism can do more harm than good.
Sandip vs. Nikhil
Nikhil and Sandip have extremely different views for the growth of the nation. Nikhil demonstrates these beliefs in marrying Bimala, a woman considered "unattractive" as a result of her dark skin color. In the novel, Nikhil talks about disliking an intensely patriotic nation, "Use force? But for what? Can force prevail against Truth?" (45). On the other hand, Sandip has contrasting views for the growth of the nation believing in power and force, "My country does not become mine simply because it is the country of my birth. It becomes mine on the day when I am able to win it by force". (45) The contradicting views of Nikhil and Sandip set up the story and construct a dilemma for Bimala. Unfortunately for Nikhil, he has already tried to show Bimala the outside world, and stir some sort of emotion within her since the beginning of the novel, and failed. Sandip possesses great oratory skill that wins Bimala over simply because of his passion and ferocity, something that her husband may lack.
Illusions
The constant forming of illusions in the novel grows to be a major recurring theme. Sandip tends to create illusions that almost always have negative effects on his followers and on the nation of Bengal. He builds an illusion of his beliefs that sucks the people of Bengal into a sort of cult. His illusion is complete sovereignty, free of all other worlds, and an endless supply of wealth and self enjoyment. This illusion, as many are, is a fake and a lie. It ultimately sells these people a front row ticket to watch their nation fall into complete chaos and civil war between people with different beliefs. He constructs an illusion for Bimala to believe, saying she is the future, women are the future, they are the chosen path to salvation. Bimala builds an illusion that she is to blame for this war, it is solely her doing. That she has done all wrong and no right. She refuses to accept that she too was a victim of "Bande Mataram". "I now fear nothing-neither myself, nor anybody else. I have passed through fire. What was inflammable has been burnt to ashes; what is left is deathless. I have dedicated myself to the feet of him, who has received all my sin into the depths of his own pain." (199) The biggest of all is Sandip's mask of caring and passion, while he hides his own selfishness and desire for the world.
Truth
In more than one way, this novel is a comparison of different views of truth. Which reality is truer is up to the reader's interpretation. Nikhil maintains an idealistic view of the world while Sandip takes a radical, nature-worshiping view. He feels Nikhil's view of the world is inferior to the real, raw world in which he lives as a radical leader. Bimala as well must compare truths. Through her interactions with Sandip, she is introduced to the truth of "shakti" (female power), yet her life with Nikhil is centred on the truth of conjugality. Each of these instances is a comparison of truth as being something simply objective to being something with a more spiritual or moral dimension. While the story ends in tragedy, both views of truth are important players in the story's outcome, and it is left to the reader to ponder with which he or she agrees or disagrees.
Love and union
From the first page of the novel, the love and union between Nikhil and Bimala is illustrated as something sacred. Nikhil proved throughout the story that he was undeniably devoted to his wife. He proved this first by marrying a woman who hailed from a poor family, along with accepting her darker skin. He made great effort to not only educate her, but also for her to understand her place in the world and not just her place in the captivity of their house. He shows his love by giving her freedom. Bimala also adores her husband, but in a less material manner. This is demonstrated in Bimala's daily ritual of "taking the dust", an Indian ritual of reverence not usually performed by a wife to her husband.
Due to Bimala's extreme devotion to Nikhil, in the beginning of the novel, the union between the two of them is seen as one that cannot be broken. However, as, the story progresses, Bimala is slowly overcome by her feelings for Sandip. She eventually realises that she has found in Sandip what she longed for in Nikhil, fierce ambition and even violent defence of one's ideals. Her deep desire for Sandip led her to completely break her sacred union with Nikhil, going as far as to steal money from her household funds. Sandip shows his love for Bimala through idolisation. This idolisation comes about due to her freedom, though.
The tale clearly presents the theme of love and union time and time again, going from Nikhil and Bimala's marriage, through the love triangle created by Sandip, and once again returning to Bimala's love for Nikhil at the very end. This story tests the boundaries of the union of marriage. It stretches and twists it to the point where a 9-year marriage is nearly destroyed simply because of a raw temptation. In addition to the idea of romantic love, there is a sense of love of one's own country depicted throughout the novel. Questions such as, is it best to love one's country through action, perhaps even violence, or by passive tolerance, are posed in the arguments of Nikhil and Sandip. While love and worship seem parallel in marriage, Nikhil believes these feelings cannot apply to one's country. "To worship my country as a god is to bring a curse upon it". (29)
The role of women
Throughout the novel, as stated earlier, a strong sense of devotion is seen in the relationship between Bimala and Nikhil. It is key to notice that an indirect evaluation of the role of women is seen in this novel also, in a very subtle manner. In the society described, Bimala, like most women, blindly worships her husband. This can be seen when Bimala is described, "taking the dust of my husband's feet without waking him". When she is caught doing this act of reverence, her reaction is, "That had nothing to do with merit. It was a woman's heart, which must worship in order to love." (18). This scene shows the average woman in this society who believes love will happen and worship is a given in a marriage. She blindly respects her husband without understanding or having a grasp of who he is.
Another one of the many scenes that alludes to a woman's place in this society is when Nikhil and Sandip argue and Bimala is asked her opinion, which she finds unusual, in addition to "Never before had I [Bimala] had an opportunity of being present at a discussion between my husband and his men friends" (38). This line shows how there is a strong disconnect and there is no place, usually, for a woman in real world conversations. To further prove this, in Nikhil's story, the role of a woman is seen clearly, "Up till now Bimala was my home-made Bimala, the product of the confined space and the daily routine of small duties" (42). These indirect references and descriptions are quite frequent throughout the novel and clearly allows the reader to get a sense of what women were subject to and their overall role in the society.
Religion versus nationalism
One major theme in the novel is the importance of religion on the one hand and nationalism on the other. In this novel, religion can be seen as the more "spiritual view" while nationalism can be seen more as the "worldly view." Nikhil's main perspective in life is by the moral and intangible, while Sandip is more concerned about the tangible things, which to him is reality. Sandip believes that this outlook on life, living in a way where one may follow his or her passions and seek immediate gratification, is what gives strength and portrays reality, which is linked to his strong belief in nationalism. From Sandip's point of view, "when reality has to meet the unreal, deception is its principal weapon; for its enemies always try to shame Reality by calling it gross, and so it needs must hide itself, or else put on some disguise" (Tagore 55). To Sandip, reality consists of being "gross", "true", "flesh", "passion", "hunger, unashamed and cruel" (Tagore 55). On the other hand, Nikhil's view is more concerned with controlling one's passions and living life in a moral way. He believes that it is, "a part of human nature to try and rise superior to itself", rather than living recklessly by acting on instinct and fleshly desires (Tagore 57). Nikhil argues that a person must learn to control his or her passions and "recognize the truth of restraint" and that "by pressing what we want to see right into our eyes we only injure them: we do not see" (Tagore 60). All these moral precepts tie in with his faith. Nikhil also speaks from a more religious perspective when he speaks of how "all at once my heart was full with the thought that my Eternal Love was steadfastly waiting for me through the ages, behind the veil of material things" (Tagore 66). This shows that Nikhil does not live morally just for the sake of trying to be good, but that it is grounded in his religious views. Sandip reiterates the fact that in their country, they have both "religion and also our nationalism" and that "the result is that both of them suffer" (Tagore 80).
Thursday, 29 April 2021
Monday, 26 April 2021
Wednesday, 23 December 2020
Pamela some important points
1.1 Gender and the character of ‘Pamela’
There’s a power imbalance between the two sexes in the 18th century and it’s reflected in Pamela and Mr. B’s relationship in the novel. Due to their different social classes in society, Mr. B and Pamela starts out having a completely unfair power imbalance; not only is Mr. B a man, but he is also a very wealthy man of authority and Pamela is a poor subordinate servant. Mr. B encapsulates men’s role in society as patriarchal and authoritarian and Pamela epitomises 18th century notions of femininity with her submissiveness and compliance.
In the novel, Pamela is viewed as the epitome of virtuous and christian femininity with her dedication to chastity, docility and humility. She’s emotionally fragile, hysterical and faints under stressful circumstances. People in the novel regularly praise her for conforming to the ideals of femininity with phrases like “you’re an ornament to your sex” and “called me an exemplar of all my sex”. But Pamela isn’t all passive and compliant, because she does courageously stand up Mr. B’s ill-treatment of her and is therefore quite complex.
Curiously, many of the same gender stereotypes we assign to men and women today also dominated the understanding of masculinity and femininity all the way back in the mid 18th century.
“You are so pretty, that, go where you will, you can never be free from the designs of some of our sex”
Mr. B describes men uncontrollable sexual thirst the same way the male gender is still sometimes stereotyped as sexually aggressive and fundamentally unable to control their urges. “Boys will be boys” kind of talk. Mrs. Jervis says to Pamela that she should “stay out of the way of men” if she doesn’t want to become a victim of rape or sexual harassment. This echoes the way many still blames the victim in sexual assault cases today.
Women are also accused of being vain, gossipy and obsessed with fashion. Pamela herself has a very low opinion of women;
“For well I know, sir, that nothing much excites the envy of my own sex, as seeing a person set above them in appearance, and in dress”
The novel also reveals the sexual double standards that are present today as well as back then. Men are free to call on prostitutes or relieve their urges by having a mistress without too much damage being done to their reputation. But the same cannot be said for women. As Pamela says:
“If he can stoop to like such a poor girl as me, what can it be for? He may, perhaps, think I may be good enough for his harlot; and those things don’t disgrace men, that ruin poor women” (p. 40)
1.2 Religion and morals
Samuel Richardson was a very moralistic and conservative writer. He was very inspired by the religious puritan ideal of innocence and virtue. He denounces the idea of sexual and materialistic “self-indulgence” and thinks it is the root of all evil. Pamela exemplifies the ideal puritan woman; she refuses any sexual relationship with Mr. B.
“I can so contentedly return to my poverty again, and think it less disgrace to be obliged to live upon rye-bread and water, as I used to do, than to be a harlot to the greatest man in the world”
Pamela also declines to receive any pecuniary gifts continually offered by Mr.B and his servants.
“Bread and water I can live upon, Mrs Jervis, with content. Water I shall get any where; there is nourishment in water, Mrs Jervis: and if I can’t get me bread, I will live like a bird in winter upon hips and haws, and at other times upon pig-nuts and potatoes, or turnips, or any thing. So what occasion have I for these things [money]?(p. 87-88)
And despite being delighted at receiving fine clothing and luxury items by the wealthy Mr. B upon his mothers death, Pamela rejects the fine clothing when going to her father’s poor village house in fear of being considered vain and out of place;
“But since I am to be turned away, you know, I cannot wear them at my poor father’s; for I should bring all the little village upon my back: and so I resolve not to have them” (p. 86)
Pamela’s purity and good behaviour is essentially “rewarded” with her being married to a noble man and the story having a happy ending.
Also throughout the entire novel, Samuel Richardson makes it clear that Pamela knows her place in society. She’s born lower-class and she embraces her family’s poverty. She’s by no means ashamed of it or repulsed by poverty like other haughty snobbish 18th century people were.
In the end, this is a moralistic conduct novel (as there were many of in the 18th century). Samuel Richardson is saying; this is how young girls should conduct themselves, if you resolve to be pure, innocent, religious and humble like Pamela, everything will end well for you.
1.3 Class
The marriage between the poor servant Pamela and the wealthy nobleman Mr. B caused quite an uproar in 18th century english society. It was scandalous that a servant should marry her master, someone so above her own class. But a lower-class girl marrying a higher-class man is a plotline found in surprisingly many romance-novels, and there’s a reason for it. In the 18th and 19th centuries, a woman’s social ranking was determined by either her father or husband’s place in the social hierarchy. To quote Mr. B himself:
“the difference is, a man ennobles the woman he takes, be she who she will; and adopts her into his own rank, be it what it will: but a woman, though ever so nobly born, debases herself by a mean marriage, and descends from her own rank, to that of him she stoops to marry” – Mr. B
This is probably linked to the legal doctrine of “coverture” which purports that a woman’s legal existence is ‘suspended’ during marriage and is ‘consolidated’ into that of her husband and the wife loses almost all the privileges she’d have as a single woman (to own property, keep salary, sign contracts etc). It may also be linked to why women has historically assumed her husband’s last name instead of keeping her own.
But the problematic thing about this, is that while the gender difference of ‘man and woman’ in an 18th century relationship is unequal (due to men being considered superior), the class distinction creates even more of a power imbalance. Pamela should not only listen and obey her husband because he’s male, but also because he’s higher-born than her. After their marriage, Pamela willingly continues to address her husband as “master”. Some of Mr. B’s friends even jokes that all wives should call their husband’s ‘master’.
Pamela herself, in the first few pages of the book, acknowledges that the class distinction between her and Mr. B should make their relationship implausible. She was also apprehensive about sharing her fear of Mr. B’s sexual advances with others, as they might consider her vain;
“But I say nothing yet of your cautions, or of my own uneasiness, to Mrs Jervis; not that I mistrust her, but for fear that she should think me presumptuous and vain, and conceited, to have any fears about the matter, from the great distance between such a gentleman and so poor a girl” – Pamela.
But it also seems that Pamela expects a sort of ‘respect’ from her master. Pamela is astonished to discover the motives of Mr. B to be completely antithetical to that of a gentleman. After all, an ideal gentleman would preserve her virtue, not ruin it.
Someone writing an analysis on Pamela on the website ‘Gradesaver’ encapsulates it perfectly, I think:
“If this hedging suggests latent class snobbery on Richardson’s part, however, the novelist does not fail to insist that those who receive privileges under the system bear responsibilities also, and correspondingly those on the lower rungs of the ladder are entitled to claim rights of their superiors. Thus, in the early part of the novel, Pamela emphasizes that Mr. B., in harassing her, violates his duty to protect the social inferiors under his care;” (source: http://www.gradesaver.com/pamela-or-virtue-rewarded/study-guide/themes)
So, Mr. B’s sexual advances towards her shows a lack of respect for her class; he doesn’t consider the reputation she’d lose nor her right to bodily integrity.
“I said, ‘I won’t stay’”
‘You won’t, hussy! Do you know whom you speak to?’
“I lost all fear and all respect, and said “Yes, I do, sir, too well! Well may I forget that I am your servant, when you forget what belongs to a master’”
The quote reveals Mr. B’s sense of entitlement; how dare Pamela refuse his advances and talk back to him when he is her superior. Richardson’s negative portrayal of the immoral, pompous and entitled Mr. B suggests that he might’ve drawn some from the real world of 18th century society. In another scene, Mr. B actually blames Pamela’s cheekiness as the reason he’s been ‘rougher’ with her. In response, another servant insists that Pamela should know her place. This conversation puts the blame on the victim, not the perpetrator.
“Do you hear, Mrs Jervis?” said he, “do you hear hear the pertness of the creature? I had a good deal of this sort before in the summer-house, and yesterday too, which made me rougher with her than perhaps I had otherwise been”
“‘Pamela, don’t be pert to his honour,’ said Mrs Jervis; ‘you should know your distance; you see his honour was only in jest’
Pamela believes in the puritan idea that ‘humility’ is a virtue. These religious ideals also intertwines with her class – as lower-class persons should ideally ‘embrace’ and acknowledge their social class and their place the hierarchy. Pamela does this by discarding her late Lady B’s fine clothing and by continually being “humble” and excusing herself in the presence of ladies and gentlemen. In the same vein, higher-class people should acknowledge their place in society and act accordingly. When Pamela marries, she feels it acceptable to finally wear her late Lady B’s fancy clothes without too much guilt.
The book also describes the condescending and disrespectful attitude upper-class eighteenth century individuals often harboured towards the lower-class – especially the supercilious and downright abusive way employers treated their servants.
“Why, Creature,’ said she, flying into a passion, ‘dost thou think thyself above it? Insolence!’ continued she, ‘this moment, when I bid you, know your duty, and give me a glass of wine; or-‘“
Lady Davers’s mean treatment of servants even stretched as far back as her childhood, which means her sense of superiority must’ve been internalised very early on.
“‘Lady Davers’ added she, ‘when a maiden, was always passionate, but very good when her anger was over. She would make nothing of slapping her maids about, and begging their pardons afterwards, if they took it patiently; otherwise she used to say, The creatures were even with her’”
But to be fair, her brother, Mr. B did speak about her in a disapproving way whilst explaining his sister’s supercilious tendencies.
Mr. B is complex in terms of how he engages with his own class and class differences in 18th century society. On one hand, he looks past class differences when he marries his waiting-maid but is at the same time very aware of his social status and exploits it to seduce and abduct female servants in his household. After all, Pamela isn’t the first girl he has sexually pursued, a former servant of his became pregnant and died in childbirth – which Pamela apparently think she deserved because she forfeited her virtue (actually, throughout the book, Pamela is quite a judgemental person – but I digress). Like aforementioned, Mr. B thinks people of high birth are often spoiled and arrogant in behaviour because of lack of discipline, he himself acts this way “he was very urgent with me to go ashore, or to go the voyage: I could have thrown him overboard in my mind; for being impetuous in my temper, spoiled, you know, my dear, by my mother, and not used to controul, I thought it very strange, that wind or tide, or any thing else, should be preferred me and my money:”
1.4 Marriage Life in the 18th century
Curiously, Mr. B chose a maidservant – a lower-class person – to be his wife, specifically because he knew she would be obedient as opposed to someone of high-birth. A woman of of fortune and privilege, he says, would’ve been raised without being subject to control or discipline, and therefore would’ve been too headstrong and independent to be a decent wife.
“We people of fortune, or such as are born to large expectations of both sexes are generally educated wrong” (…) “We are usually headstrong in our wills, and being unaccustomed to controul from our parents, know not how to bear it” (…) (p.499) “(…) a wife is looked for: birth, and fortune, are the first motives, affection the last (if it be at all consulted): and two people thus educated, thus been headstrong torments to every one who had share in their education, as well as to those to whom their owe their being, are brought together; and what can be expected, but that they should join heartily in matrimony to plague one another?”(…) “Neither of them having ever been subject to controul, or even to a contradiction, the man cannot bear it from one, whose new relation to him, and whose vow of obedience, he thinks, should oblige her to yield her will entirely to his.”
Mr. B does not, like other high-born men, want to marry someone who is “accustomed to have her will in everything”. He abhors the idea of men having to “compromise” with their wives, which is today, I think, conversely thought of as being one the key standards of a happy and balanced marriage.
His wife should “have shewn no reluctance, uneasiness, or doubt, to oblige me, even at half a word” and always show a high opinion of her husband whether he deserved it or not and “draw a kind veil over my faults”.
After hearing his lecture, Pamela decides to scribble down 34 rules he expects a wife to follow. It’s very interesting to read and, I think, differs a lot from how married people interact and engage with each-other today and showcases staggeringly and frustratingly unequal gender relations that women had to deal with in the 18th century. Pamela comments on all these rules though, in her journal, and some of them she agrees with more than others. I’m happy Samuel Richardson also included Pamela’s own independent thoughts on those rules.
Citation
1]
Wednesday, 16 December 2020
A Tale of A Tub
The Title and Structure
The first thing that's puzzling about A Tale of A Tub is its title. The preface explains that it is the practice of seamen when they meet a whale to throw out an empty tub to divert it from attacking their ship. The whale that this tub is thrown out for most obviously represents Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan. Swift's tub is intended to distract Hobbes and other critics of the church and government from picking holes in their weak points.
The Tale, with its two appendages ('The Battle of the Books' and 'The Discourse Concerning the Mechanical Operation of the Spirit') is Swift's first important prose work. It was written during the 1690s, when Swift was living with his patron Sir William Temple, and it was published in 1704. Most modern scholars read the revised fifth edition published in 1710. Like Swift's other major prose - including Gulliver's Travelsand A Modest Proposal - A Tale of a Tub was published anonymously. But unlike with those later works, Swift was obsessively concerned with preserving the anonymity of his authorship of the Tale. His authorship of the Tale was never publicly acknowledged in his lifetime, nor did it appear in authorised editions of his collected works.
But although Swift vigorously maintained the fiction of anonymity in relation to A Tale of a Tub, never at any point did he try to suppress the book as a whole; he only tried to obscure his direct connection with it. But despite the fact that he was desperate that no one should ever know that he wrote A Tale of a Tub, he also seems to have been extraordinarily proud of his satire. The one comment that we have on record from Swift about the Tale comes from a letter transcribed for the Earl of Orrery:
'There is no doubt but that he was Author of the Tale of the Tub. He never
owned it: but as he one day made his Relation Mrs Whiteway read it to him,
he made use of This expression. 'Good God! What a flow of imagination had
I, when I wrote this.'
There is a strange paradox here: Swift wanted to disavow his connection with the work, yet at the same time he wanted the genius evident in the satire to be recognised as his.
Religious Orthodoxy
Swift says in the 'Apology' that was added to the 1710 edition that A Tale of a Tub was partly intended to attack the religious groups that he saw as threatening the hegemony of the Anglican church. In the Tale, Swift uses the analogy of the three brothers - Martin, Peter and Jack - to represent, respectively, the Anglican Church, the Catholic Church, and the Low Church, or Dissenters. In doing so, he is trying to demonstrate that the spiritual practices of the Catholic Church and dissenting sects were based on a false interpretation of the true Word, the Bible. However, the sweep of Swift's irony in the book, and, the destabilising and confusing nature of its changes in satiric personae meant that many of his contemporaries read the Tale as an attack all religion.
For a young Anglican churchman intent on a speedy ascension through the ranks of the church, this was a very damaging charge. Swift's decision to publish the apology in the revised edition of 1710 likely is related to his anxiety about his career at this time, and the Tale's potential to compromise his position. Late 1710, was perhaps the most exciting and promising time in Swift's career; he was being courted by the rising Tory leader Robert Harley to join the Tory cause, and power and importance seemed imminent. Swift was to believe for the rest of his life that his failure to secure the ecclesiastical promotions that he wanted was due to influential (including royal) disapproval of the perceived irreligious tendencies of A Tale of a Tub.
Authorship and Identity
Portrait of Jonathan Swift
Portrait of Jonathan Swift [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
But there may be more to Swift's desire to remain guarded about his authorship of A Tale of a Tub than just its potential to compromise his rise to power. Swift seems to be ambivalent about his ownership of the work not just in the original text of 1704, but also in the 'Apology' added in 1710. The 'Apology' is a very strange document: it purports to be a straightforward clearing up of unnecessary misunderstandings, but it actually fails to clear anything up at all.
It is supposed to be an intervention in the controversy over the intended meaning of the Tale. However, the author of the 'Apology' does not admit to being Swift, or even the author of the Tale. Swift creates a third person figure that seems to ventriloquise a defence of the work that is part on behalf of an enraged and violated author, and part an outsider coming to his rescue. The apology refers consistently to the author, saying that 'the author cannot conclude this apology without…' or 'the author observes'. But the tale is complicated by the Apology's use of an 'I' in it, a figure that is differentiated from 'the author'.
What then is the authority of the 'Apology'? Whose is this intervention? Does it matter if we do not know? Does it make a difference to the way we read the text if it is prefaced with a foreword by the author, as opposed to someone else? And once we get into the argument of the 'Apology' itself, there seem to be rather contradictory arguments at work about the role of the author. On one hand, the speaker inveighs against all those who have sought to identify Swift as the composer of the parody:
'He thinks it no fair proceeding, that any Person should offer determinately
to fix a name upon the Author of this Discourse, who hath all along
concealed himself from most of his nearest Friends.'
However, further on, he seems to assert the originality of the work, and suggests that there is only one original genius that could have composed a work of such verve and erudition. Taking issue both his critics' charges that he had plagiarised the work, and with the fact that a man called Thomas Swift had recently claimed to have written the Tale, the apology asserts:
'It indeed touches the Author in a very tender Point, who insists upon it,
that through the whole Book he has not borrowed one single Hint from any
Writer in the World; and he thought of all Criticisms, that would never have
been one. He conceived it was never disputed to be an Original, whatever
Faults it might have'.
What we seem to have here is the desire to disown the text, to disown
responsibility for it, to suggest that a book's authorship is irrelevant.
But we also see the urge to lay claim to it, on the grounds of some notion
of original genius.
Originality
The idea of originality is vexed by A Tale of a Tub. As we've seen here, Swift both dismisses the importance of authorship and fiercely defends it. These ambiguous and contradictory concerns are is mirrored within the text, which in some ways it seems to push the boundaries of what can be called an original. A Tale of a Tub is profoundly postmodern in its intertextuality, its play with literary forms, and its changes in speaker and genre and that constantly undermine readerly expectations of the text. It parodies bookseller's catalogues, scholarly treatises, scientific works, effusive dedicatory prose, and it borrows, magpie-like, from a wide and disparate range of sources. A Tale of a Tub is a patchwork of unattributed quotations to Dryden, Marvell, Richard Bentley, Thomas Browne, and Joseph Addison.
After the Tale appeared in 1704, William Wotton, an Anglican clergyman incensed by what he saw as Swift's impropriety, published a critique of the work. It was entitled Defense of the Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning, With Observations upon The Tale of a Tub(1705). In the critique, Wotton offered an explication of the story of the three brothers, attempting to demonstrate that the Tale was a work of radical impiety. When Swift brought out his revised 5th edition in 1710, he cheekily copied the explanatory material of Wotton's attack and had them printed as notes to the new edition his own text. Thus, from 1710, part of the Tale was made up chunks of Wotton's attack on it, cut and pasted in as the Tale's textual apparatus. So in one sense, since it derived so many bits and pieces from other authors, none of the Tale is original. Yet on the other hand, Swift used these other works to compose a wholly new text, one he asserted roundly in the apology was 'an Original, whatever its Faults might have been' and which he later declared was the product of a magnificent 'flow of the Imagination'.
These ideas about originality are reflected in the Tale's relationship to one of its major influences. The text that the Tale most explicitly situates itself in relation to is one that also poses problems of classification as 'original work': John Dryden's Translation of the Works of Virgil in English, of 1697. Dryden's Virgil was the big publishing sensation of the decade. The former laureate issued his definitive version of the great Latin's epic poems, and Dryden's Virgil remained the standard edition until well into the twentieth century.
Swift's A Tale of a Tub was composed at the same time that the Virgil was printed, and in A Tale, Swift takes it upon himself to attack Dryden's work. Swift represents Dryden as a midget cowering in gigantic Virgilian armour, an author who represents the worst of modern literary narcissism. Dryden's extraordinary multiplication of prefaces, dedications, and illustrations offer a model for the external structure of A Tale, which parodies these excesses by incorporating an unfeasible amount of prefatory material before we ever get to the main text: Swift's Tale has an 'Epistle Dedicatory to Prince Posterity', followed by a preface, and then an introduction.
So when Swift snidely suggests that any 'very Considerable Addition to the Bulk of the Volume' is 'a Circumstance by no means to be neglected by a Skilful writer,' he is taking a swipe at Dryden. But Dryden's Virgil is also very interesting in relation to the idea of originality, and plagiarism; like all translation, it is at once a version of an older text, and a new work in its own right. To whom did the lines of the Aeneid belong? Dryden or Virgil? To complicate matters, in producing his edition, Dryden stole words and phrases on a large scale from previous translators, particularly Lauderdale. And to turn this same scrutiny upon Jonathan Swift, is A Tale of Tub is actually an enormous compilation of quotation claiming inspired originality?
The Ancients and Moderns
How do Swift's concerns about originality and authorship reflect on contemporary cultural debate? 'The Battle of the Books', along with the Tale, was perhaps the most impressive English contribution to the so-called quarrel of the Ancients and the moderns. The history of this quarrel can be traced back to the Renaissance. Rediscovery and publication of the philosophers and poets of ancient Greece and Rome generated a huge sense of intellectual and cultural liberation for many sixteenth century writers. But with this revival came a questioning of assumptions about the value of the classical texts.
In literary terms, the debate polarised around the question of whether present civilisations could hope to outdo the achievements of the ancient world in the arts, and in science and technology. Some contemporaries, 'the Moderns', were excited by this possibility. There were moderns who were classical scholars, like Richard Bentley (who is satirised in 'Battle of the Books'), who believed that there was nothing sacred about classical texts. He believed that the classical past should be seen as a body of material that could be dated and analysed, and above all historicized. The classics were not a body of transcendent truths for all time, but an historical source about a much less advanced classical past. So he produced editions of classical texts with endless footnotes and appendices re-contextualising and analysing the poetry in terms of this historical past, not unlike modern critical editions of the works of Shakespeare.
But 'the Ancients', among whose number Swift counted himself, realised with horror that aspirations of this kind threatened the educational and cultural structures that Europe's elite had shared ever since the Renaissance rediscovery of the classical past. Educated in a humanist tradition of scholarship, 'the Ancients' believed that the values derived from Greek and Roman literature continued to provide authoritative standards of virtue, rationality, and aesthetic taste. The classics weren't remnants of a past and primitive culture: they were culture, and were cornerstones by which all human endeavour could be measured. They were not to be questioned or dissected by scholarship in the way Bentley attempted.
Swift was tied in to this debate heavily because his patron at the time of writing the Tale, Sir William Temple, was a key figure among the group of Ancients. Swift's 'Battle of the Books' engages fully on the side of the Ancients: through the figure of Scaliger, Swift attacks Bentley for his lack of grace, observing the irony that the classics have failed to infuse their decorum and civilising influence on the scholar. Swift writes, "All Arts of civilising Others, render thee rude and untractable." The social and cultural superiority of the Ancients is reflected in their imperviousness to the assaults of the moderns, and this is illustrated in the mock-epic passage near the end of the 'Battle of the Books', where the Anglican churchman and modern defender of Bentley, William Wotton, hurls a lance at William Temple but we are told that Temple "neither felt the Weapon touch him, nor heard it fall".
This debate about ancient and modern learning is clearly intimately bound up with the interrogation of authority and authorial status that we see in A Tale of a Tub. The Ancients and Moderns debate was in essence about a question of origins, and of textual authority. It was about how far the authority of the classical poets extended. If you took the Ancients argument to its logical conclusion, no truly newgreat literature could ever be produced, because the summit had already been achieved. The best that was left was imitation. And so you could read the tissue of allusions and borrowings that constitutes the Tale as a trope for the indebtedness of modern literature, for its dependence upon earlier texts that render the idea of modern originality meaningless. And in formulating a brilliant work out of a collage of older ones the tale, Swift gestures toward the way in which the ancients can continue to generate new and imaginative literature: the habits of allusion and imitation that were at the centre of the neoclassicism of the Ancients could also be generative.
The Tale is self-consciously digressive, and attacks the modern writers unmindful of the past and obsessed with the idea of being up to the moment. The narrator of the Tale is fatuously scrupulous in recording this contemporaneity by recording the most trivial domestic circumstances and everything that enters his head at the moment of writing, including his thoughts on the writing of his thoughts. In drawing attention to its newness, A Tale of a Tub parodies the novelty associated with the romance and early novel, always presenting new scenes and "surprising adventures".
Swift also satirises contemporary developments in the book trade: the expanding commercialism of the literary marketplace, and the hybrid forms of scholarship, history, and pamphlet that it was spawning. The Tale is just such a hybrid. And it makes a nonsense of typographical innovation, the random and pointless use of asterisks, hyphens, and parentheses gesture towards an over-excited print culture whose sense of literary merit has got lost in new and various forms of textual egotism.
Paralleling this obsession with textual modernity comes a corresponding collective cultural amnesia. The moderns are so obsessed with being new, that they have forgotten their past. This is made explicit in section six of A Tale of a Tub:
'Memory being an employment of the mind upon things past, is a
faculty for which the learned in our illustrious age have no manner of
occasion, who deal entirely with invention, and strike all things out of
themselves'.
The invention that is being satirised here is both scientific and literary.
Parody and Allegory
Martin Luther
Painting of Martin Luther, on whom Swift's 'Martin' is based [Public Domain], via Wikimedia Commons
In addition to the 'digressions' that form a satire on modern learning and print culture, A Tale of a Tub's more obvious satire is that on abuses in religion. The satire works through the allegory of the three brothers: Martin, Peter, and Jack. Martin symbolises the Anglican Church (from Martin Luther); Peter symbolizes the Roman Catholic Church; and Jack (from John Calvin) symbolises the Dissenters. Their father leaves each brother a coat as a legacy, with strict orders that the coats are on no account to be altered. The sons gradually disobey his injunction, finding excuses for adding shoulder knots or gold lace, according to the prevailing fashion. Martin and Jack quarrel with the arrogant Peter (the Reformation), and then with each other (the split between Anglicanism and Puritanism), and then separate. As we might expect, Martin is by far the most moderate of the three, and his speech in section six is by the sanest thing anyone has to say in the Tale.
Both parody and allegory work by implicitly, or explicitly, comparing one sort of book with another. As a broad generalisation, they are concerned with intertextual relationships, and how you can use one text to invoke or critique another. But the distinction is that allegory teaches its readers to see beyond appearance to recognise truth, while parody teaches its readers to see beyond appearance to recognise error.
In the case of the allegorical story of the three brothers, the ultimate pre-text is the Bible: the father's last recorded words take the form of a will, a dead letter, defining and confining the ways in which the sons are to live their lives:
'You will find in my Will (here it is) full Instructions in every Particular
concerning the Wearing and Management of your Coats; wherein you must be
very exact, to avoid the Penalties I have appointed for every transgression
or Neglect, upon which your future Fortunes will entirely depend'.
The later subversion of the will provides us with an allegory of misreading. The abuse of the living coats (the Church) provides an allegory of desire and corruption. The brothers abuse and misinterpret the will as a way of figuring misuse and misinterpretation of the Bible. The attack on Jack, representing Dissenters, is particularly biting: it targets the sectarian groups who exalted the individual worshipper or small congregation with their claims to inner light and private conscience, unchecked by tradition and institutional authority.
In the case of the satire on writing and scholarship, as we have seen in the first half of this lecture, texts like Dryden's Virgil and scholarship of Bentley that are being undermined. They are works whose claim to authority is spurious, and whose authors fail to pay homage to the only true originals of classical civilisation.
In this reading of The Tale of a Tub, then, there seem to be clear distinctions between parody of lesser forms and allegory of higher forms, which roughly corresponds to the twin foci of Swift's work. Both the parody and the allegory are concerned with discerning true and false models of textual authority.
But perhaps there is more overlap between parody and allegory than there seems at first glance. If we think about the brothers and their coats as an allegory of misreading, we can see that the notion of the Bible as sacred pre-text is complicated by the fact that what the brothers can so misread and miscontruct the words of the will that they are able get it to justify whatever they want it to do. We slip out of allegory and into parody, as Swift mocks as his ludicrous pretext false exegetical analyses of the Scripture. Initially, the Will has the power to protect the brothers from their fallen nature, but slowly and insidiously, the relationship of masterful text to obedient interpreter is turned around. Led by Peter, the Catholic, the brothers subvert the terms of the Will by means of wilfully self-seeking interpretation. The simple, explicit dictates of the Will are twisted to serve as a canonical sanction to justify shoulder knots on the cloaks. Flame-coloured satin is said to be 'found' in a codicil of the will, a dangerous supplement, which corresponds to apocryphal additions to the Bible. Embroidered images are forbidden, so they are excused by the sophistry that the new fashion in images is different from that which existed in the father's time, and is therefore acceptable.
By the time the brothers have finished, the Will, or the Word that they are authorising their actions with is no longer the true, original, sacred word, but their corrupt and self -serving version of it. The pre-text underwriting the allegory of the coats is no longer the Bible, but a distorted misreading of it, a fallen text that must be discredited. Thus we have moved across into parody. The impact of an allegory is to reveal the privileged status of the pretext, while a parody aims at undermining the value of the pretext.
One of the implications of the shifting and unstable nature of the satiric forms employed in the Tale is that it makes it difficult to establish what Swift does take to be his ideal point, the true perspective against which the follies satirised can be measured and found wanting. Because we're not sure of the interpretative framework we're working within, allegory or parody, it's hard to be confident about the moral thrust of the work. It is no wonder that contemporary readers so frequently misinterpreted Swift's intentions, to Swift's professional detriment.
Citation
Cite:Jonathan Swift and 'A Tale of a Tub' by Abigail Williams, Kate O'Connor at http://writersinspire.org/content/jonathan-swift-tale-tub. Accessed on Wednesday, December 16, 2020.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
-
Salman Rushdie novel midnights children we see movie and here I want to share my point of view about this movie screening. Midnigh...
-
To evaluate my assignment click here SMT S.B.Gardi Department of English M.K.Bhavnagar University. Name :- Goswami Mahir Pari...
-
About drama long Day's journey in to the night from Goswami Mahirpari Work Citation Sufian, Abu. “O'Neill's Long ...
